c-intro-and-ref/cpp.texi

@ignore
@c Copyright @copyright{} 2020 Richard Stallman and Free Software Foundation, Inc.

DRAFT --- DO NOT REDISTRIBUTE --- DRAFT --- DO NOT REDISTRIBUTE --- DRAFT 
@end ignore

@node Preprocessing
@chapter Preprocessing
@c man begin DESCRIPTION
@cindex preprocessing
As the first stage of compiling a C source module, GCC transforms the
text with text substitutions and file inclusions.  This is called
@dfn{preprocessing}.

@menu
* Preproc Overview::
* Directives::
* Preprocessing Tokens::
* Header Files::
* Macros::
* Conditionals::
* Diagnostics::
* Line Control::
* Null Directive::
@end menu

@node Preproc Overview
@section Preprocessing Overview

GNU C performs preprocessing on each line of a C program as the first
stage of compilation.  Preprocessing operates on a line only when it
contains a @dfn{preprocessing directive} or uses a @dfn{macro}---all
other lines pass through preprocessing unchanged.

Here are some jobs that preprocessing does.  The rest of
this chapter gives the details.

@itemize @bullet
@item
Inclusion of header files.  These are files (usually containing
declarations and macro definitions) that can be substituted into your
program.

@item
Macro expansion.  You can define @dfn{macros}, which are abbreviations
for arbitrary fragments of C code.  Preprocessing replaces the macros
with their definitions.  Some macros are automatically predefined.

@item
Conditional compilation.  You can include or exclude parts of the
program according to various conditions.

@item
Line control.  If you use a program to combine or rearrange source files
into an intermediate file that is then compiled, you can use line
control to inform the compiler where each source line originally came
from.

@item
Compilation control.  @code{#pragma} and @code{_Pragma} invoke
some special compiler features in how to handle certain constructs.

@item
Diagnostics.  You can detect problems at compile time and issue errors
or warnings.
@end itemize

Except for expansion of predefined macros, all these operations happen
only if you use preprocessing directives to request them.

@node Directives
@section Directives
@cindex directives
@cindex preprocessing directives
@cindex directive line
@cindex directive name

@dfn{Preprocessing directives} are lines in the program that start
with @samp{#}.  Whitespace is allowed before and after the @samp{#}.
The @samp{#} is followed by an identifier, the @dfn{directive name}.
It specifies the operation to perform.  Here are a couple of examples:

@example
#define LIMIT 51
  #   undef LIMIT
# error You screwed up!
@end example

We usually refer to a directive as @code{#@var{name}} where @var{name}
is the directive name.  For example, @code{#define} means the
directive that defines a macro.

The @samp{#} that begins a directive cannot come from a macro
expansion.  Also, the directive name is not macro expanded.  Thus, if
@code{foo} is defined as a macro expanding to @code{define}, that does
not make @code{#foo} a valid preprocessing directive.

The set of valid directive names is fixed.  Programs cannot define new
preprocessing directives.

Some directives require arguments; these make up the rest of the
directive line and must be separated from the directive name by
whitespace.  For example, @code{#define} must be followed by a macro
name and the intended expansion of the macro.

A preprocessing directive cannot cover more than one line.  The line
can, however, be continued with backslash-newline, or by a
@samp{/*@r{@dots{}}*/}-style comment that extends past the end of the
line.  These will be replaced (by nothing, or by whitespace) before
the directive is processed.

@node Preprocessing Tokens
@section Preprocessing Tokens

@cindex preprocessing tokens
Preprocessing divides C code (minus its comments) into
@dfn{tokens} that are similar to C tokens, but not exactly the same.
Here are the quirks of preprocessing tokens.

The main classes of preprocessing tokens are identifiers,
preprocessing numbers, string constants, character constants, and
punctuators; there are a few others too.

@table @asis
@item identifier
@cindex identifiers
An @dfn{identifier} preprocessing token is syntactically like an
identifier in C: any sequence of letters, digits, or underscores, as
well as non-ASCII characters represented using @samp{\U} or @samp{\u},
that doesn't begin with a digit.

During preprocessing, the keywords of C have no special significance;
at that stage, they are simply identifiers.  Thus, you can define a
macro whose name is a keyword.  The only identifier that is special
during preprocessing is @code{defined} (@pxref{defined}).

@item preprocessing number
@cindex numbers, preprocessing
@cindex preprocessing numbers
A @dfn{preprocessing number} is something that preprocessing treats
textually as a number, including C numeric constants, and other
sequences of characters which resemble numeric constants.
Preprocessing does not try to verify that a preprocessing number is a
valid number in C, and indeed it need not be one.

More precisely, preprocessing numbers begin with an optional period, a
required decimal digit, and then continue with any sequence of
letters, digits, underscores, periods, and exponents.  Exponents are
the two-character sequences @samp{e+}, @samp{e-}, @samp{E+},
@samp{E-}, @samp{p+}, @samp{p-}, @samp{P+}, and @samp{P-}.  (The
exponents that begin with @samp{p} or @samp{P} are new to C99.  They
are used for hexadecimal floating-point constants.)

The reason behind this unusual syntactic class is that the full
complexity of numeric constants is irrelevant during preprocessing.
The distinction between lexically valid and invalid floating-point
numbers, for example, doesn't matter at this stage.  The use of
preprocessing numbers makes it possible to split an identifier at any
position and get exactly two tokens, and reliably paste them together
using the @code{##} operator (@pxref{Concatenation}).

@item punctuator
A @dfn{punctuator} is syntactically like an operator.
These are the valid punctuators:

@example
[  ]   (  )  @{  @}  .  ->
++ --  &  *  +  -  ~  !
/  %   << >> <  >  <= >=  ==  !=  ^  |  &&  ||
?  :   ;  ...
=  *=  /=  %=  +=  -=  <<=  >>=  &=  ^=  |=
,  #   ##
<: :>  <% %>  %:  %:%:
@end example

@item string constant
A string constant in the source code is recognized by preprocessing as
a single preprocessing token.

@item character constant
A character constant in the source code is recognized by preprocessing
as a single preprocessing token.

@item header name
Within the @code{#include} directive, preprocessing recognizes a
@dfn{header name} token.  It consists of @samp{"@var{name}"}, where
@var{name} is a sequence of source characters other than newline and
@samp{"}, or @samp{<@var{name}>}, where @var{name} is a sequence of
source characters other than newline and @samp{>}.

In practice, it is more convenient to think that the @code{#include} line
is exempt from tokenization.

@item other
Any other character that's valid in a C source program
is treated as a separate preprocessing token.
@end table

Once the program is broken into preprocessing tokens, they remain
separate until the end of preprocessing.  Macros that generate two
consecutive tokens insert whitespace to keep them separate, if
necessary.  For example,

@example
@group
#define foo() bar
foo()baz
     @expansion{} bar baz
@emph{not}
     @expansion{} barbaz
@end group
@end example

The only exception is with the @code{##} preprocessing operator, which
pastes tokens together (@pxref{Concatenation}).

Preprocessing treats the null character (code 0) as whitespace, but
generates a warning for it because it may be invisible to the user
(many terminals do not display it at all) and its presence in the file
is probably a mistake.

@node Header Files
@section Header Files

@cindex header file
A header file is a file of C code, typically containing C declarations
and macro definitions (@pxref{Macros}), to be shared between several
source files.  You request the use of a header file in your program by
@dfn{including} it, with the C preprocessing directive
@code{#include}.

Header files serve two purposes.

@itemize @bullet
@item
@cindex system header files
System header files declare the interfaces to parts of the operating
system.  You include them in your program to supply the definitions and
declarations that you need to invoke system calls and libraries.

@item
Program-specific header files contain declarations for interfaces between the
source files of a particular program.  It is a good idea to create a header
file for related declarations and macro definitions if all or most of them
are needed in several different source files.
@end itemize

Including a header file produces the same results as copying the header
file into each source file that needs it.  Such copying would be
time-consuming and error-prone.  With a header file, the related
declarations appear in only one place.  If they need to be changed, you
can change them in one place, and programs that include the header file
will then automatically use the new version when next recompiled.  The header
file eliminates the labor of finding and changing all the copies as well
as the risk that a failure to change one copy will result in
inconsistencies within a program.

In C, the usual convention is to give header files names that end with
@file{.h}.  It is most portable to use only letters, digits, dashes, and
underscores in header file names, and at most one dot.

@menu
* include Syntax::
* include Operation::
* Search Path::
* Once-Only Headers::
@c * Alternatives to Wrapper #ifndef::
* Computed Includes::
@c * Wrapper Headers::
@c * System Headers::
@end menu

@node include Syntax
@subsection @code{#include} Syntax

@findex #include
You can specify inclusion of user and system header files with the
preprocessing directive @code{#include}.  It has two variants:

@table @code
@item #include <@var{file}>
This variant is used for system header files.  It searches for a file
named @var{file} in a standard list of system directories.  You can
prepend directories to this list with the @option{-I} option
(@pxref{Invocation, Invoking GCC, Invoking GCC, gcc, Using the GNU
Compiler Collection}).

@item #include "@var{file}"
This variant is used for header files of your own program.  It
searches for a file named @var{file} first in the directory containing
the current file, then in the quote directories, then the same
directories used for @code{<@var{file}>}.  You can prepend directories
to the list of quote directories with the @option{-iquote} option.
@end table

The argument of @code{#include}, whether delimited with quote marks or
angle brackets, behaves like a string constant in that comments are not
recognized, and macro names are not expanded.  Thus, @code{@w{#include
<x/*y>}} specifies inclusion of a system header file named @file{x/*y}.

However, if backslashes occur within @var{file}, they are considered
ordinary text characters, not escape characters: character escape
sequences such as used in string constants in C are not meaningful
here.  Thus, @code{@w{#include "x\n\\y"}} specifies a filename
containing three backslashes.  By the same token, there is no way to
escape @samp{"} or @samp{>} to include it in the header file name if
it would instead end the file name.

Some systems interpret @samp{\} as a file name component separator.
All these systems also interpret @samp{/} the same way.  It is most
portable to use only @samp{/}.

It is an error to put anything other than comments on the
@code{#include} line after the file name.

@node include Operation
@subsection @code{#include} Operation

The @code{#include} directive works by scanning the specified header
file as input before continuing with the rest of the current file.
The result of preprocessing consists of the text already generated,
followed by the result of preprocessing the included file, followed by
whatever results from the text after the @code{#include} directive.
For example, if you have a header file @file{header.h} as follows,

@example
char *test (void);
@end example

@noindent
and a main program called @file{program.c} that uses the header file,
like this,

@example
int x;
#include "header.h"

int
main (void)
@{
  puts (test ());
@}
@end example

@noindent
the result is equivalent to putting this text in @file{program.c}:

@example
int x;
char *test (void);

int
main (void)
@{
  puts (test ());
@}
@end example

Included files are not limited to declarations and macro definitions;
those are merely the typical uses.  Any fragment of a C program can be
included from another file.  The include file could even contain the
beginning of a statement that is concluded in the containing file, or
the end of a statement that was started in the including file.  However,
an included file must consist of complete tokens.  Comments and string
literals that have not been closed by the end of an included file are
invalid.  For error recovery, the compiler terminates them at the end of
the file.

To avoid confusion, it is best if header files contain only complete
syntactic units---function declarations or definitions, type
declarations, etc.

The line following the @code{#include} directive is always treated as
a separate line, even if the included file lacks a final newline.
There is no problem putting a preprocessing directive there.

@node Search Path
@subsection Search Path

GCC looks in several different places for header files to be included.
On the GNU system, and Unix systems, the default directories for
system header files are:

@example
@var{libdir}/gcc/@var{target}/@var{version}/include
/usr/local/include
@var{libdir}/gcc/@var{target}/@var{version}/include-fixed
@var{libdir}/@var{target}/include
/usr/include/@var{target}
/usr/include
@end example

@noindent
The list may be different in some operating systems.  Other
directories are added for C++.

In the above, @var{target} is the canonical name of the system GCC was
configured to compile code for; often but not always the same as the
canonical name of the system it runs on.  @var{version} is the version
of GCC in use.

You can add to this list with the @option{-I@var{dir}} command-line
option.  All the directories named by @option{-I} are searched, in
left-to-right order, @emph{before} the default directories.  The only
exception is when @file{dir} is already searched by default.  In
this case, the option is ignored and the search order for system
directories remains unchanged.

Duplicate directories are removed from the quote and bracket search
chains before the two chains are merged to make the final search chain.
Thus, it is possible for a directory to occur twice in the final search
chain if it was specified in both the quote and bracket chains.

You can prevent GCC from searching any of the default directories with
the @option{-nostdinc} option.  This is useful when you are compiling an
operating system kernel or some other program that does not use the
standard C library facilities, or the standard C library itself.
@option{-I} options are not ignored as described above when
@option{-nostdinc} is in effect.

GCC looks for headers requested with @code{@w{#include "@var{file}"}}
first in the directory containing the current file, then in the
@dfn{quote directories} specified by @option{-iquote} options, then in
the same places it looks for a system header.  For example, if
@file{/usr/include/sys/stat.h} contains @code{@w{#include "types.h"}},
GCC looks for @file{types.h} first in @file{/usr/include/sys}, then in
the quote directories and then in its usual search path.

@code{#line} (@pxref{Line Control}) does not change GCC's idea of the
directory containing the current file.

@cindex quote directories
The @option{-I-} is an old-fashioned, deprecated way to specify the
quote directories.  To look for headers in a directory named @file{-},
specify @option{-I./-}.  There are several more ways to adjust the
header search path.  @xref{invocation, Invoking GCC, Invoking GCC,
gcc, Using the GNU Compiler Collection}.

@node Once-Only Headers
@subsection Once-Only Headers
@cindex repeated inclusion
@cindex including just once
@cindex wrapper @code{#ifndef}

If a header file happens to be included twice, the compiler will process
its contents twice.  This is very likely to cause an error, e.g.@: when the
compiler sees the same structure definition twice.

The standard way to prevent this is to enclose the entire real contents
of the file in a conditional, like this:

@example
@group
/* File foo.  */
#ifndef FILE_FOO_SEEN
#define FILE_FOO_SEEN

@var{the entire file}

#endif /* !FILE_FOO_SEEN */
@end group
@end example

This construct is commonly known as a @dfn{wrapper #ifndef}.  When the
header is included again, the conditional will be false, because
@code{FILE_FOO_SEEN} is defined.  Preprocessing skips over the entire
contents of the file, so that compilation will never ``see'' the file
contents twice in one module.

GCC optimizes this case even further.  It remembers when a header file
has a wrapper @code{#ifndef}.  If a subsequent @code{#include}
specifies that header, and the macro in the @code{#ifndef} is still
defined, it does not bother to rescan the file at all.

You can put comments in the header file outside the wrapper.  They
do not interfere with this optimization.

@cindex controlling macro
@cindex guard macro
The macro @code{FILE_FOO_SEEN} is called the @dfn{controlling macro}
or @dfn{guard macro}.  In a user header file, the macro name should
not begin with @samp{_}.  In a system header file, it should begin
with @samp{__} (or @samp{_} followed by an upper-case letter) to avoid
conflicts with user programs.  In any kind of header file, the macro
name should contain the name of the file and some additional text, to
avoid conflicts with other header files.

@node Computed Includes
@subsection Computed Includes
@cindex computed includes
@cindex macros in include

Sometimes it is necessary to select one of several different header
files to be included into your program.  They might specify
configuration parameters to be used on different sorts of operating
systems, for instance.  You could do this with a series of conditionals,

@example
#if SYSTEM_1
# include "system_1.h"
#elif SYSTEM_2
# include "system_2.h"
#elif SYSTEM_3
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#endif
@end example

That rapidly becomes tedious.  Instead, GNU C offers the ability to use
a macro for the header name.  This is called a @dfn{computed include}.
Instead of writing a header name as the direct argument of
@code{#include}, you simply put a macro name there instead:

@example
#define SYSTEM_H "system_1.h"
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#include SYSTEM_H
@end example

@noindent
@code{SYSTEM_H} is expanded, then @file{system_1.h} is included as if
the @code{#include} had been written with that name.  @code{SYSTEM_H}
could be defined by your Makefile with a @option{-D} option.

You must be careful when you define such a macro.  @code{#define}
saves tokens, not text.  GCC has no way of knowing that the macro will
be used as the argument of @code{#include}, so it generates ordinary
tokens, not a header name.  This is unlikely to cause problems if you
use double-quote includes, which are syntactically similar to string
constants.  If you use angle brackets, however, you may have trouble.

The syntax of a computed include is actually a bit more general than the
above.  If the first non-whitespace character after @code{#include} is
not @samp{"} or @samp{<}, then the entire line is macro-expanded
like running text would be.

If the line expands to a single string constant, the contents of that
string constant are the file to be included.  Preprocessing does not
re-examine the string for embedded quotes, but neither does it process
backslash escapes in the string.  Therefore

@example
#define HEADER "a\"b"
#include HEADER
@end example

@noindent
looks for a file named @file{a\"b}.  Preprocessing searches for the
file according to the rules for double-quoted includes.

If the line expands to a token stream beginning with a @samp{<} token
and including a @samp{>} token, then the tokens between the @samp{<} and
the first @samp{>} are combined to form the filename to be included.
Any whitespace between tokens is reduced to a single space; then any
space after the initial @samp{<} is retained, but a trailing space
before the closing @samp{>} is ignored.  Preprocessing searches for the file
according to the rules for angle-bracket includes.

In either case, if there are any tokens on the line after the file name,
an error occurs and the directive is not processed.  It is also an error
if the result of expansion does not match either of the two expected
forms.

These rules are implementation-defined behavior according to the C
standard.  To minimize the risk of different compilers interpreting your
computed includes differently, we recommend you use only a single
object-like macro that expands to a string constant.  That also
makes it clear to people reading your program.

@node Macros
@section Macros
@cindex macros

A @dfn{macro} is a fragment of code that has been given a name.
Whenever the name is used, it is replaced by the contents of the macro.
There are two kinds of macros.  They differ mostly in what they look
like when they are used.  @dfn{Object-like} macros resemble data objects
when used, @dfn{function-like} macros resemble function calls.

You may define any valid identifier as a macro, even if it is a C
keyword.  In the preprocessing stage, GCC does not know anything about
keywords.  This can be useful if you wish to hide a keyword such as
@code{const} from an older compiler that does not understand it.
However, the preprocessing operator @code{defined} (@pxref{defined})
can never be defined as a macro, and C@code{++}'s named operators
(@pxref{C++ Named Operators, C++ Named Operators, C++ Named Operators,
gcc, Using the GNU Compiler Collection}) cannot be macros when
compiling C@code{++} code.

The operator @code{#} is used in macros for stringification of an
argument (@pxref{Stringification}), and @code{##} is used for
concatenation of arguments into larger tokens (@pxref{Concatenation})

@menu
* Object-like Macros::
* Function-like Macros::
@c * Macro Pragmas::
* Macro Arguments::
* Stringification::
* Concatenation::
* Variadic Macros::
* Predefined Macros::
* Undefining and Redefining Macros::
* Directives Within Macro Arguments::
* Macro Pitfalls::
@end menu

@node Object-like Macros
@subsection Object-like Macros
@cindex object-like macro
@cindex symbolic constants
@cindex manifest constants

An @dfn{object-like macro} is a simple identifier that will be
replaced by a code fragment.  It is called object-like because in most
cases the use of the macro looks like reference to a data object in
code that uses it.  These macros are most commonly used to give
symbolic names to numeric constants.

@findex #define
The way to define macros with the @code{#define} directive.
@code{#define} is followed by the name of the macro and then the token
sequence it should be an abbreviation for, which is variously referred
to as the macro's @dfn{body}, @dfn{expansion} or @dfn{replacement
list}.  For example,

@example
#define BUFFER_SIZE 1024
@end example

@noindent
defines a macro named @code{BUFFER_SIZE} as an abbreviation for the
token @code{1024}.  If somewhere after this @code{#define} directive
there comes a C statement of the form

@example
foo = (char *) malloc (BUFFER_SIZE);
@end example

@noindent
then preprocessing will recognize and @dfn{expand} the macro
@code{BUFFER_SIZE}, so that compilation will see the tokens:

@example
foo = (char *) malloc (1024);
@end example

By convention, macro names are written in upper case.  Programs are
easier to read when it is possible to tell at a glance which names are
macros.  Macro names that start with @samp{__} are reserved for
internal uses, and many of them are defined automatically, so don't
define such macro names unless you really know what you're doing.
Likewise for macro names that start with @samp{_} and an upper-case letter.

The macro's body ends at the end of the @code{#define} line.  You may
continue the definition onto multiple lines, if necessary, using
backslash-newline.  When the macro is expanded, however, it will all
come out on one line.  For example,

@example
#define NUMBERS 1, \
                2, \
                3
int x[] = @{ NUMBERS @};
     @expansion{} int x[] = @{ 1, 2, 3 @};
@end example

@noindent
The most common visible consequence of this is surprising line numbers
in error messages.

There is no restriction on what can go in a macro body provided it
decomposes into valid preprocessing tokens.  Parentheses need not
balance, and the body need not resemble valid C code.  (If it does not,
you may get error messages from the C compiler when you use the macro.)

Preprocessing scans the program sequentially.  A macro definition
takes effect right after its appearance.  Therefore, the following
input

@example
foo = X;
#define X 4
bar = X;
@end example

@noindent
produces

@example
foo = X;
bar = 4;
@end example

When preprocessing expands a macro name, the macro's expansion
replaces the macro invocation, then the expansion is examined for more
macros to expand.  For example,

@example
@group
#define TABLESIZE BUFSIZE
#define BUFSIZE 1024
TABLESIZE
     @expansion{} BUFSIZE
     @expansion{} 1024
@end group
@end example

@noindent
@code{TABLESIZE} is expanded first to produce @code{BUFSIZE}, then that
macro is expanded to produce the final result, @code{1024}.

Notice that @code{BUFSIZE} was not defined when @code{TABLESIZE} was
defined.  The @code{#define} for @code{TABLESIZE} uses exactly the
expansion you specify---in this case, @code{BUFSIZE}---and does not
check to see whether it too contains macro names.  Only when you
@emph{use} @code{TABLESIZE} is the result of its expansion scanned for
more macro names.

This makes a difference if you change the definition of @code{BUFSIZE}
at some point in the source file.  @code{TABLESIZE}, defined as shown,
will always expand using the definition of @code{BUFSIZE} that is
currently in effect:

@example
#define BUFSIZE 1020
#define TABLESIZE BUFSIZE
#undef BUFSIZE
#define BUFSIZE 37
@end example

@noindent
Now @code{TABLESIZE} expands (in two stages) to @code{37}.

If the expansion of a macro contains its own name, either directly or
via intermediate macros, it is not expanded again when the expansion is
examined for more macros.  This prevents infinite recursion.
@xref{Self-Referential Macros}, for the precise details.

@node Function-like Macros
@subsection Function-like Macros
@cindex function-like macros

You can also define macros whose use looks like a function call.
These are called @dfn{function-like macros}.  To define one, use the
@code{#define} directive with a pair of parentheses immediately after
the macro name.  For example,

@example
#define lang_init()  c_init()
lang_init()
     @expansion{} c_init()
@end example

A function-like macro is expanded only when its name appears with a
pair of parentheses after it.  If you write just the name, without
parentheses, it is left alone.  This can be useful when you have a
function and a macro of the same name, and you wish to use the
function sometimes.  Whitespace and line breaks before or between the
parentheses are ignored when the macro is called.

@example
extern void foo(void);
#define foo() /* @r{optimized inline version} */
/* @r{@dots{}} */
  foo();
  funcptr = foo;
@end example

Here the call to @code{foo()} expands the macro, but the function
pointer @code{funcptr} gets the address of the real function
@code{foo}.  If the macro were to be expanded there, it would cause a
syntax error.

If you put spaces between the macro name and the parentheses in the
macro definition, that does not define a function-like macro, it defines
an object-like macro whose expansion happens to begin with a pair of
parentheses.  Here is an example:

@example
#define lang_init ()    c_init()
lang_init()
     @expansion{} () c_init()()
@end example

The first two pairs of parentheses in this expansion come from the
macro.  The third is the pair that was originally after the macro
invocation.  Since @code{lang_init} is an object-like macro, it does not
consume those parentheses.

Any name can have at most one macro definition at a time.  Thus,
you can't define the same name as an object-like macro and a
function-like macro at once.

@node Macro Arguments
@subsection Macro Arguments
@cindex arguments
@cindex macros with arguments
@cindex arguments in macro definitions

Function-like macros can take @dfn{arguments}, just like true functions.
To define a macro that uses arguments, you insert @dfn{parameters}
between the pair of parentheses in the macro definition that make the
macro function-like.  The parameters must be valid C identifiers,
separated by commas and optionally whitespace.

To invoke a macro that takes arguments, you write the name of the macro
followed by a list of @dfn{actual arguments} in parentheses, separated
by commas.  The invocation of the macro need not be restricted to a
single logical line---it can cross as many lines in the source file as
you wish.  The number of arguments you give must match the number of
parameters in the macro definition.  When the macro is expanded, each
use of a parameter in its body is replaced by the tokens of the
corresponding argument.  (The macro body is not required to use all of the
parameters.)

As an example, here is a macro that computes the minimum of two numeric
values, as it is defined in many C programs, and some uses.

@example
#define min(X, Y)  ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y))
  x = min(a, b);      @expansion{} x = ((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b));
  y = min(1, 2);      @expansion{} y = ((1) < (2) ? (1) : (2));
  z = min(a+28, *p);  @expansion{} z = ((a+28) < (*p) ? (a+28) : (*p));
@end example

@noindent
In this small example you can already see several of the dangers of
macro arguments.  @xref{Macro Pitfalls}, for detailed explanations.

Leading and trailing whitespace in each argument is dropped, and all
whitespace between the tokens of an argument is reduced to a single
space.  Parentheses within each argument must balance; a comma within
such parentheses does not end the argument.  However, there is no
requirement for square brackets or braces to balance, and they do not
prevent a comma from separating arguments.  Thus,

@example
macro (array[x = y, x + 1])
@end example

@noindent
passes two arguments to @code{macro}: @code{array[x = y} and @code{x +
1]}.  If you want to supply @code{array[x = y, x + 1]} as an argument,
you can write it as @code{array[(x = y, x + 1)]}, which is equivalent C
code.  However, putting an assignment inside an array subscript
is to be avoided anyway.

All arguments to a macro are completely macro-expanded before they are
substituted into the macro body.  After substitution, the complete text
is scanned again for macros to expand, including the arguments.  This rule
may seem strange, but it is carefully designed so you need not worry
about whether any function call is actually a macro invocation.  You can
run into trouble if you try to be too clever, though.  @xref{Argument
Prescan}, for detailed discussion.

For example, @code{min (min (a, b), c)} is first expanded to

@example
  min (((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b)), (c))
@end example

@noindent
and then to

@example
@group
((((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b))) < (c)
 ? (((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b)))
 : (c))
@end group
@end example

@noindent
(The line breaks shown here for clarity are not actually generated.)

@cindex empty macro arguments
You can leave macro arguments empty without error, but many macros
will then expand to invalid code.  You cannot leave out arguments
entirely; if a macro takes two arguments, there must be exactly one
comma at the top level of its argument list.  Here are some silly
examples using @code{min}:

@smallexample
min(, b)        @expansion{} ((   ) < (b) ? (   ) : (b))
min(a, )        @expansion{} ((a  ) < ( ) ? (a  ) : ( ))
min(,)          @expansion{} ((   ) < ( ) ? (   ) : ( ))
min((,),)       @expansion{} (((,)) < ( ) ? ((,)) : ( ))

min()      @error{} macro "min" requires 2 arguments, but only 1 given
min(,,)    @error{} macro "min" passed 3 arguments, but takes just 2
@end smallexample

Whitespace is not a preprocessing token, so if a macro @code{foo} takes
one argument, @code{@w{foo ()}} and @code{@w{foo ( )}} both supply it an
empty argument.

@ignore @c How long ago was this?
Previous GNU preprocessor implementations and
documentation were incorrect on this point, insisting that a
function-like macro that takes a single argument be passed a space if an
empty argument was required.
@end ignore

Macro parameters appearing inside string literals are not replaced by
their corresponding actual arguments.

@example
#define foo(x) x, "x"
foo(bar)        @expansion{} bar, "x"
@end example

@noindent
See the next subsection for how to insert macro arguments
into a string literal.

The token following the macro call and the last token of the macro
expansion do not become one token even if it looks like they could:

@example
#define foo()  abc
foo()def        @expansion{} abc def
@end example

@node Stringification
@subsection Stringification
@cindex stringification
@cindex @code{#} operator

Sometimes you may want to convert a macro argument into a string
constant.  Parameters are not replaced inside string constants, but
you can use the @code{#} preprocessing operator instead.  When a macro
parameter is used with a leading @code{#}, preprocessing replaces it
with the literal text of the actual argument, converted to a string
constant.  Unlike normal parameter replacement, the argument is not
macro-expanded first.  This is called @dfn{stringification}.

There is no way to combine an argument with surrounding text and
stringify it all together.  But you can write a series of string
constants and stringified arguments.  After preprocessing replaces the
stringified arguments with string constants, the consecutive string
constants will be concatenated into one long string constant
(@pxref{String Constants}).

Here is an example that uses stringification and concatenation of
string constants:

@example
@group
#define WARN_IF(EXP) \
  do @{ if (EXP) \
          fprintf (stderr, "Warning: " #EXP "\n"); @} \
  while (0)

WARN_IF (x == 0);
     @expansion{}
  do @{ if (x == 0)
          fprintf (stderr, "Warning: " "x == 0" "\n"); @}
  while (0);
@end group
@end example

@noindent
The argument for @code{EXP} is substituted once, as is, into the
@code{if} statement, and once, stringified, into the argument to
@code{fprintf}.  If @code{x} were a macro, it would be expanded in the
@code{if} statement but not in the string.

The @code{do} and @code{while (0)} are a kludge to make it possible to
write @code{WARN_IF (@var{arg});}.  The resemblance of @code{WARN_IF}
to a function makes that a natural way to write it.
@xref{Swallowing the Semicolon}.

Stringification in C involves more than putting double-quote
characters around the fragment.  It also backslash-escapes the quotes
surrounding embedded string constants, and all backslashes within
string and character constants, in order to get a valid C string
constant with the proper contents.  Thus, stringifying @code{@w{p =
"foo\n";}} results in @t{@w{"p = \"foo\\n\";"}}.  However, backslashes
that are not inside string or character constants are not duplicated:
@samp{\n} by itself stringifies to @t{"\n"}.

All leading and trailing whitespace in text being stringified is
ignored.  Any sequence of whitespace in the middle of the text is
converted to a single space in the stringified result.  Comments are
replaced by whitespace long before stringification happens, so they
never appear in stringified text.

There is no way to convert a macro argument into a character constant.

To stringify the result of expansion of a macro argument, you have to
use two levels of macros, like this:

@example
#define xstr(S) str(S)
#define str(s) #s
#define foo 4
str (foo)
     @expansion{} "foo"
xstr (foo)
     @expansion{} xstr (4)
     @expansion{} str (4)
     @expansion{} "4"
@end example

@code{s} is stringified when it is used in @code{str}, so it is not
macro-expanded first.  But @code{S} is an ordinary argument to
@code{xstr}, so it is completely macro-expanded before @code{xstr}
itself is expanded (@pxref{Argument Prescan}).  Therefore, by the time
@code{str} gets to its argument text, that text already been
macro-expanded.

@node Concatenation
@subsection Concatenation
@cindex concatenation
@cindex token pasting
@cindex token concatenation
@cindex @code{##} operator

It is often useful to merge two tokens into one while expanding macros.
This is called @dfn{token pasting} or @dfn{token concatenation}.  The
@code{##} preprocessing operator performs token pasting.  When a macro
is expanded, the two tokens on either side of each @code{##} operator
are combined into a single token, which then replaces the @code{##} and
the two original tokens in the macro expansion.  Usually both will be
identifiers, or one will be an identifier and the other a preprocessing
number.  When pasted, they make a longer identifier.

Concatenation into an identifier isn't the only valid case.  It is
also possible to concatenate two numbers (or a number and a name, such
as @code{1.5} and @code{e3}) into a number.  Also, multi-character
operators such as @code{+=} can be formed by token pasting.

However, two tokens that don't together form a valid token cannot be
pasted together.  For example, you cannot concatenate @code{x} with
@code{+}, not in either order.  Trying this issues a warning and keeps
the two tokens separate.  Whether it puts white space between the
tokens is undefined.  It is common to find unnecessary uses of
@code{##} in complex macros.  If you get this warning, it is likely
that you can simply remove the @code{##}.

The tokens combined by @code{##} could both come from the macro body,
but then you could just as well write them as one token in the first place.
Token pasting is useful when one or both of the tokens comes from a
macro argument.  If either of the tokens next to an @code{##} is a
parameter name, it is replaced by its actual argument before @code{##}
executes.  As with stringification, the actual argument is not
macro-expanded first.  If the argument is empty, that @code{##} has no
effect.

Keep in mind that preprocessing converts comments to whitespace before
it looks for uses of macros.  Therefore, you cannot create a comment
by concatenating @samp{/} and @samp{*}.  You can put as much
whitespace between @code{##} and its operands as you like, including
comments, and you can put comments in arguments that will be
concatenated.

It is an error to use @code{##} at the beginning or end of a macro
body.

Multiple @code{##} operators are handled left-to-right, so that
@samp{1 ## e ## -2} pastes into @samp{1e-2}.  (Right-to-left
processing would first generate @samp{e-2}, which is an invalid token.)
When @code{#} and @code{##} are used together, they are all handled
left-to-right.

Consider a C program that interprets named commands.  There probably
needs to be a table of commands, perhaps an array of structures declared
as follows:

@example
@group
struct command
@{
  char *name;
  void (*function) (void);
@};
@end group

@group
struct command commands[] =
@{
  @{ "quit", quit_command @},
  @{ "help", help_command @},
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@};
@end group
@end example

It would be cleaner not to have to write each command name twice, once
in the string constant and once in the function name.  A macro that
takes the name of a command as an argument can make this unnecessary.
It can create the string constant with stringification, and the
function name by concatenating the argument with @samp{_command}.
Here is how it is done:

@example
#define COMMAND(NAME)  @{ #NAME, NAME ## _command @}

struct command commands[] =
@{
  COMMAND (quit),
  COMMAND (help),
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@};
@end example

@node Variadic Macros
@subsection Variadic Macros
@cindex variable number of arguments
@cindex macros with variable arguments
@cindex variadic macros

A macro can be declared to accept a variable number of arguments much as
a function can.  The syntax for defining the macro is similar to that of
a function.  Here is an example:

@example
#define eprintf(@dots{}) fprintf (stderr, __VA_ARGS__)
@end example

This kind of macro is called @dfn{variadic}.  When the macro is invoked,
all the tokens in its argument list after the last named argument (this
macro has none), including any commas, become the @dfn{variable
argument}.  This sequence of tokens replaces the identifier
@code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}} in the macro body wherever it appears.  Thus, we
have this expansion:

@example
eprintf ("%s:%d: ", input_file, lineno)
     @expansion{}  fprintf (stderr, "%s:%d: ", input_file, lineno)
@end example

The variable argument is completely macro-expanded before it is inserted
into the macro expansion, just like an ordinary argument.  You may use
the @code{#} and @code{##} operators to stringify the variable argument
or to paste its leading or trailing token with another token.  (But see
below for an important special case for @code{##}.)

@strong{Warning:} don't use the identifier @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}
for anything other than this.

If your macro is complicated, you may want a more descriptive name for
the variable argument than @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}.  You can write an
argument name immediately before the @samp{@dots{}}; that name is used
for the variable argument.@footnote{GNU C extension.}  The
@code{eprintf} macro above could be written thus:

@example
#define eprintf(args@dots{}) fprintf (stderr, args)
@end example

A variadic macro can have named arguments as well as variable
arguments, so @code{eprintf} can be defined like this, instead:

@example
#define eprintf(format, @dots{}) \
  fprintf (stderr, format, __VA_ARGS__)
@end example

@noindent
This formulation is more descriptive, but what if you want to specify
a format string that takes no arguments?  In GNU C, you can omit the
comma before the variable arguments if they are empty, but that puts
an extra comma in the expansion:

@example
eprintf ("success!\n")
     @expansion{} fprintf(stderr, "success!\n", );
@end example

@noindent
That's an error in the call to @code{fprintf}.

To get rid of that comma, the @code{##} token paste operator has a
special meaning when placed between a comma and a variable
argument.@footnote{GNU C extension.}  If you write

@example
#define eprintf(format, @dots{}) \
  fprintf (stderr, format, ##__VA_ARGS__)
@end example

@noindent
then use the macro @code{eprintf} with empty variable arguments,
@code{##} deletes the preceding comma.

@example
eprintf ("success!\n")
     @expansion{} fprintf(stderr, "success!\n");
@end example

@noindent
This does @emph{not} happen if you pass an empty argument, nor does it
happen if the token preceding @code{##} is anything other than a
comma.

@noindent
When the only macro parameter is a variable arguments parameter, and
the macro call has no argument at all, it is not obvious whether that
means an empty argument or a missing argument.  Should the comma be
kept, or deleted?  The C standard says to keep the comma, but the
preexisting GNU C extension deleted the comma.  Nowadays, GNU C
retains the comma when implementing a specific C standard, and deletes
it otherwise.

C99 mandates that the only place the identifier @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}
can appear is in the replacement list of a variadic macro.  It may not
be used as a macro name, macro parameter name, or within a different
type of macro.  It may also be forbidden in open text; the standard is
ambiguous.  We recommend you avoid using that name except for its
special purpose.

Variadic macros where you specify the parameter name is a GNU C
feature that has been supported for a long time.  Standard C, as of
C99, supports only the form where the parameter is called
@code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}.  For portability to previous versions of GNU C
you should use only named variable argument parameters.  On the other
hand, for portability to other C99 compilers, you should use only
@code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}.

@node Predefined Macros
@subsection Predefined Macros
@cindex predefined macros

Several object-like macros are predefined; you use them without
supplying their definitions.  Here we explain the ones user programs
often need to use.  Many other macro names starting with @samp{__} are
predefined; in general, you should not define such macro names
yourself.

@table @code
@item __FILE__
This macro expands to the name of the current input file, in the form
of a C string constant.  This is the full name by which the GCC opened
the file, not the short name specified in @code{#include} or as the
input file name argument.  For example,
@code{"/usr/local/include/myheader.h"} is a possible expansion of this
macro.

@item __LINE__
This macro expands to the current input line number, in the form of a
decimal integer constant.  While we call it a predefined macro, it's
a pretty strange macro, since its ``definition'' changes with each
new line of source code.

@item __func__
@itemx __FUNCTION__
These names are like variables that have as value a string containing
the name of the current function definition.  They are not really
macros, but this is the best place to mention them.

@code{__FUNCTION__} is the name that has been defined in GNU C since
time immemorial; @code{__func__} is defined by the C standard.
With the following conditionals, you can use whichever one is defined.

@example
#if __STDC_VERSION__ < 199901L
# if __GNUC__ >= 2
#  define __func__ __FUNCTION__
# else
#  define __func__ "<unknown>"
# endif
#endif
@end example

@item __PRETTY_FUNCTION__
This is equivalent to @code{__FUNCTION__} in C, but in C@code{++}
the string includes argument type information as well.
It is a GNU C extension.
@end table

Those features are useful in generating an error message to report an
inconsistency detected by the program; the message can state the
source line where the inconsistency was detected.  For example,

@example
fprintf (stderr, "Internal error: "
                 "negative string length "
                 "in function %s "
                 "%d at %s, line %d.",
         __func__, length, __FILE__, __LINE__);
@end example

A @code{#line} directive changes @code{__LINE__}, and may change
@code{__FILE__} as well.  @xref{Line Control}.

@table @code
@item __DATE__
This macro expands to a string constant that describes the date of
compilation.  The string constant contains eleven characters and looks
like @code{@w{"Feb 12 1996"}}.  If the day of the month is just one
digit, an extra space precedes it so that the date is always eleven
characters.

If the compiler cannot determine the current date, it emits a warning messages
(once per compilation) and @code{__DATE__} expands to
@code{@w{"??? ?? ????"}}.

We deprecate the use of @code{__DATE__} for the sake of reproducible
compilation.

@item __TIME__
This macro expands to a string constant that describes the time of
compilation.  The string constant contains eight characters and looks
like @code{"23:59:01"}.

If the compiler cannot determine the current time, it emits a warning
message (once per compilation) and @code{__TIME__} expands to
@code{"??:??:??"}.

We deprecate the use of @code{__TIME__} for the sake of reproducible
compilation.

@item __STDC__
In normal operation, this macro expands to the constant 1, to signify
that this compiler implements ISO Standard C@.

@item __STDC_VERSION__
This macro expands to the C Standard's version number, a long integer
constant of the form @code{@var{yyyy}@var{mm}L} where @var{yyyy} and
@var{mm} are the year and month of the Standard version.  This states
which version of the C Standard the compiler implements.

The current default value is @code{201112L}, which signifies the C
2011 standard.

@item __STDC_HOSTED__
This macro is defined, with value 1, if the compiler's target is a
@dfn{hosted environment}.  A hosted environment provides the full
facilities of the standard C library.
@end table

The rest of the predefined macros are GNU C extensions.

@table @code
@item __COUNTER__
This macro expands to sequential integral values starting from 0.  In
other words, each time the program uses this acro, it generates the
next successive integer.  This, with the @code{##} operator, provides
a convenient means for macros to generate unique identifiers.

@item __GNUC__
@itemx __GNUC_MINOR__
@itemx __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__
These macros expand to the major version, minor version, and patch
level of the compiler, as integer constants.  For example, GCC 3.2.1
expands @code{__GNUC__} to 3, @code{__GNUC_MINOR__} to 2, and
@code{__GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__} to 1.

If all you need to know is whether or not your program is being
compiled by GCC, or a non-GCC compiler that claims to accept the GNU C
extensions, you can simply test @code{__GNUC__}.  If you need to write
code that depends on a specific version, you must check more
carefully.  Each change in the minor version resets the patch level to
zero; each change in the major version (which happens rarely) resets
the minor version and the patch level to zero.  To use the predefined
macros directly in the conditional, write it like this:

@example
/* @r{Test for version 3.2.0 or later.} */
#if __GNUC__ > 3 || \
    (__GNUC__ == 3 && (__GNUC_MINOR__ > 2 || \
                       (__GNUC_MINOR__ == 2 && \
                        __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__ > 0))
@end example

@noindent
Another approach is to use the predefined macros to
calculate a single number, then compare that against a threshold:

@example
#define GCC_VERSION (__GNUC__ * 10000 \
                     + __GNUC_MINOR__ * 100 \
                     + __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__)
/* @r{@dots{}} */
/* @r{Test for GCC > 3.2.0} */
#if GCC_VERSION > 30200
@end example

@noindent
Many people find this form easier to understand.

@item __VERSION__
This macro expands to a string constant that describes the version of
the compiler in use.  You should not rely on its contents' having any
particular form, but you can count on it to contain at least the
release number.

@item __TIMESTAMP__
This macro expands to a string constant that describes the date and
time of the last modification of the current source file. The string
constant contains abbreviated day of the week, month, day of the
month, time in hh:mm:ss form, and the year, in the format
@code{@w{"Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973"}}.  If the day of the month is
less than 10, it is padded with a space on the left.

If GCC cannot determine that information date, it emits a warning
message (once per compilation) and @code{__TIMESTAMP__} expands to
@code{@w{"??? ??? ?? ??:??:?? ????"}}.

We deprecate the use of this macro for the sake of reproducible
compilation.
@end table

@node Undefining and Redefining Macros
@subsection Undefining and Redefining Macros
@cindex undefining macros
@cindex redefining macros
@findex #undef

You can @dfn{undefine} a macro with the @code{#undef} directive.
@code{#undef} takes a single argument, the name of the macro to
undefine.  You use the bare macro name, even if the macro is
function-like.  It is an error if anything appears on the line after
the macro name.  @code{#undef} has no effect if the name is not a
macro.

@example
#define FOO 4
x = FOO;        @expansion{} x = 4;
#undef FOO
x = FOO;        @expansion{} x = FOO;
@end example

Once a macro has been undefined, that identifier may be @dfn{redefined}
as a macro by a subsequent @code{#define} directive.  The new definition
need not have any resemblance to the old definition.

You can define a macro again without first undefining it only if
the new definition is @dfn{effectively the same} as the old one.
Two macro definitions are effectively the same if:

@itemize @bullet
@item Both are the same type of macro (object- or function-like).
@item All the tokens of the replacement list are the same.
@item If there are any parameters, they are the same.
@item Whitespace appears in the same places in both.  It need not be
exactly the same amount of whitespace, though.  Remember that comments
count as whitespace.
@end itemize

@noindent
These definitions are effectively the same:
@example
#define FOUR (2 + 2)
#define FOUR         (2    +    2)
#define FOUR (2 /* @r{two} */ + 2)
@end example
@noindent
but these are not:
@example
#define FOUR (2 + 2)
#define FOUR ( 2+2 )
#define FOUR (2 * 2)
#define FOUR(score,and,seven,years,ago) (2 + 2)
@end example

This allows two different header files to define a common macro.

You can redefine an existing macro with #define, but redefining an
existing macro name with a different definition results in a warning.

@node Directives Within Macro Arguments
@subsection Directives Within Macro Arguments
@cindex macro arguments and directives

GNU C permits and handles preprocessing directives in the text provided
as arguments for a macro.  That case is undefined in the C standard.
but in GNU C@ conditional directives in macro arguments
are clear and valid.

A paradoxical case is to redefine a macro within the call to that same
macro.  What happens is, the new definition takes effect in time for
pre-expansion of @emph{all} the arguments, then the original
definition is expanded to replace the call.  Here is a pathological
example:

@example
#define f(x) x x
f (first f second
#undef f
#define f 2
f)
@end example

@noindent
which expands to

@example
first 2 second 2 first 2 second 2
@end example

@noindent
with the semantics described above.  We suggest you avoid writing code
which does this sort of thing.

@node Macro Pitfalls
@subsection Macro Pitfalls
@cindex problems with macros
@cindex pitfalls of macros

In this section we describe some special rules that apply to macros and
macro expansion, and point out certain cases in which the rules have
counter-intuitive consequences that you must watch out for.

@menu
* Misnesting::
* Operator Precedence Problems::
* Swallowing the Semicolon::
* Duplication of Side Effects::
* Macros and Auto Type::
* Self-Referential Macros::
* Argument Prescan::
@end menu

@node Misnesting
@subsubsection Misnesting

When a macro is called with arguments, the arguments are substituted
into the macro body and the result is checked, together with the rest of
the input file, for more macro calls.  It is possible to piece together
a macro call coming partially from the macro body and partially from the
arguments.  For example,

@example
#define twice(x) (2*(x))
#define call_with_1(x) x(1)
call_with_1 (twice)
     @expansion{} twice(1)
     @expansion{} (2*(1))
@end example

Macro definitions do not have to have balanced parentheses.  By writing
an unbalanced open parenthesis in a macro body, it is possible to create
a macro call that begins inside the macro body but ends outside of it.
For example,

@example
#define strange(file) fprintf (file, "%s %d",
/* @r{@dots{}} */
strange(stderr) p, 35)
     @expansion{} fprintf (stderr, "%s %d", p, 35)
@end example

The ability to piece together a macro call can be useful, but the use of
unbalanced open parentheses in a macro body is just confusing, and
should be avoided.

@node Operator Precedence Problems
@subsubsection Operator Precedence Problems
@cindex parentheses in macro bodies

You may have noticed that in most of the macro definition examples shown
above, each occurrence of a macro parameter name had parentheses around
it.  In addition, another pair of parentheses usually surrounds the
entire macro definition.  Here is why it is best to write macros that
way.

Suppose you define a macro as follows,

@example
#define ceil_div(x, y) (x + y - 1) / y
@end example

@noindent
whose purpose is to divide, rounding up.  (One use for this operation is
to compute how many @code{int} objects are needed to hold a certain
number of @code{char} objects.)  Then suppose it is used as follows:

@example
a = ceil_div (b & c, sizeof (int));
     @expansion{} a = (b & c + sizeof (int) - 1) / sizeof (int);
@end example

@noindent
This does not do what is intended.  The operator-precedence rules of
C make it equivalent to this:

@example
a = (b & (c + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int);
@end example

@noindent
What we want is this:

@example
a = ((b & c) + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int);
@end example

@noindent
Defining the macro as

@example
#define ceil_div(x, y) ((x) + (y) - 1) / (y)
@end example

@noindent
provides the desired result.

Unintended grouping can result in another way.  Consider @code{sizeof
ceil_div(1, 2)}.  That has the appearance of a C expression that would
compute the size of the type of @code{ceil_div (1, 2)}, but in fact it
means something very different.  Here is what it expands to:

@example
sizeof ((1) + (2) - 1) / (2)
@end example

@noindent
This would take the size of an integer and divide it by two.  The
precedence rules have put the division outside the @code{sizeof} when it
was intended to be inside.

Parentheses around the entire macro definition prevent such problems.
Here, then, is the recommended way to define @code{ceil_div}:

@example
#define ceil_div(x, y) (((x) + (y) - 1) / (y))
@end example

@node Swallowing the Semicolon
@subsubsection Swallowing the Semicolon
@cindex semicolons (after macro calls)

Often it is desirable to define a macro that expands into a compound
statement.  Consider, for example, the following macro, that advances a
pointer (the parameter @code{p} says where to find it) across whitespace
characters:

@example
#define SKIP_SPACES(p, limit)  \
@{ char *lim = (limit);         \
  while (p < lim) @{            \
    if (*p++ != ' ') @{         \
      p--; break; @}@}@}
@end example

@noindent
Here backslash-newline is used to split the macro definition, which must
be a single logical line, so that it resembles the way such code would
be laid out if not part of a macro definition.

A call to this macro might be @code{SKIP_SPACES (p, lim)}.  Strictly
speaking, the call expands to a compound statement, which is a complete
statement with no need for a semicolon to end it.  However, since it
looks like a function call, it minimizes confusion if you can use it
like a function call, writing a semicolon afterward, as in
@code{SKIP_SPACES (p, lim);}

This can cause trouble before @code{else} statements, because the
semicolon is actually a null statement.  Suppose you write

@example
if (*p != 0)
  SKIP_SPACES (p, lim);
else /* @r{@dots{}} */
@end example

@noindent
The presence of two statements---the compound statement and a null
statement---in between the @code{if} condition and the @code{else}
makes invalid C code.

The definition of the macro @code{SKIP_SPACES} can be altered to solve
this problem, using a @code{do @r{@dots{}} while} statement.  Here is how:

@example
#define SKIP_SPACES(p, limit)     \
do @{ char *lim = (limit);         \
     while (p < lim) @{            \
       if (*p++ != ' ') @{         \
         p--; break; @}@}@}          \
while (0)
@end example

Now @code{SKIP_SPACES (p, lim);} expands into

@example
do @{ /* @r{@dots{}} */ @} while (0);
@end example

@noindent
which is one statement.  The loop executes exactly once; most compilers
generate no extra code for it.

@node Duplication of Side Effects
@subsubsection Duplication of Side Effects

@cindex side effects (in macro arguments)
@cindex unsafe macros
Many C programs define a macro @code{min}, for ``minimum'', like this:

@example
#define min(X, Y)  ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y))
@end example

When you use this macro with an argument containing a side effect,
as shown here,

@example
next = min (x + y, foo (z));
@end example

@noindent
it expands as follows:

@example
next = ((x + y) < (foo (z)) ? (x + y) : (foo (z)));
@end example

@noindent
where @code{x + y} has been substituted for @code{X} and @code{foo (z)}
for @code{Y}.

The function @code{foo} is used only once in the statement as it
appears in the program, but the expression @code{foo (z)} has been
substituted twice into the macro expansion.  As a result, @code{foo}
might be called twice when the statement is executed.  If it has side
effects or if it takes a long time to compute, that may be
undesirable.  We say that @code{min} is an @dfn{unsafe} macro.

The best solution to this problem is to define @code{min} in a way that
computes the value of @code{foo (z)} only once.  In general, that requires
using @code{__auto_type} (@pxref{Auto Type}).  How to use it for this
is described in the following section.  @xref{Macros and Auto Type}.

Otherwise, you will need to be careful when @emph{using} the macro
@code{min}.  For example, you can calculate the value of @code{foo
(z)}, save it in a variable, and use that variable in @code{min}:

@example
@group
#define min(X, Y)  ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y))
/* @r{@dots{}} */
@{
  int tem = foo (z);
  next = min (x + y, tem);
@}
@end group
@end example

@noindent
(where we assume that @code{foo} returns type @code{int}).

When the repeated value appears as the condition of the @code{?:}
operator and again as its @var{iftrue} expression, you can avoid
repeated execution by omitting the @var{iftrue} expression, like this:

@example
#define x_or_y(X, Y)  ((X) ? : (Y))
@end example

@noindent
In GNU C, this expands to use the first macro argument's value if that
isn't zero.  If that's zero, it compiles the second argument and uses
that value.  @xref{Conditional Expression}.

@node Macros and Auto Type
@subsubsection Using @code{__auto_type} for Local Variables
@cindex local variables in macros
@cindex variables, local, in macros
@cindex macros, local variables in

The operator @code{__auto_type} makes it possible to
define macros that can work on any data type even though they need to
generate local variable declarations.  @xref{Auto Type}.

For instance, here's how to define a safe ``maximum'' macro that
operates on any arithmetic type and computes each of its arguments
exactly once:

@example
#define max(a,b) \
  (@{ __auto_type _a = (a); \
      __auto_type _b = (b); \
    _a > _b ? _a : _b; @})
@end example

The @samp{(@{ @dots{} @})} notation produces @dfn{statement
expression}---a statement that can be used as an expression
(@pxref{Statement Exprs}).  Its value is the value of its last
statement.  This permits us to define local variables and store each
argument value into one.

@cindex underscores in variables in macros
@cindex @samp{_} in variables in macros

The reason for using names that start with underscores for the local
variables is to avoid conflicts with variable names that occur within
the expressions that are substituted for @code{a} and @code{b}.
Underscore followed by a lower case letter won't be predefined by the
system in any way.

@c We hope someday to extend C with a new form of declaration syntax 
@c which all the newly declared variables' scopes would begin at the end
@c of the entire declaration, rather than as soon as each variable's
@c declaration begins.  This way, all the variables' initializers would
@c be interpreted in the context before the declaration.  Then we could
@c use any names whatsoever for the local variables and always get correct
@c behavior for the macro.

@node Self-Referential Macros
@subsubsection Self-Referential Macros
@cindex self-reference

A @dfn{self-referential} macro is one whose name appears in its
definition.  Recall that all macro definitions are rescanned for more
macros to replace.  If the self-reference were considered a use of the
macro, it would produce an infinitely large expansion.  To prevent
this, the self-reference is not considered a macro call: preprocessing
leaves it unchanged.  Consider an example:

@example
#define foo (4 + foo)
@end example

@noindent
where @code{foo} is also a variable in your program.

Following the ordinary rules, each reference to @code{foo} will expand
into @code{(4 + foo)}; then this will be rescanned and will expand into
@code{(4 + (4 + foo))}; and so on until the computer runs out of memory.

The self-reference rule cuts this process short after one step, at
@code{(4 + foo)}.  Therefore, this macro definition has the possibly
useful effect of causing the program to add 4 to the value of @code{foo}
wherever @code{foo} is referred to.

In most cases, it is a bad idea to take advantage of this feature.  A
person reading the program who sees that @code{foo} is a variable will
not expect that it is a macro as well.  The reader will come across the
identifier @code{foo} in the program and think its value should be that
of the variable @code{foo}, whereas in fact the value is four greater.

It is useful to make a macro definition that expands to the macro
name itself.  If you write

@example
#define EPERM EPERM
@end example

@noindent
then the macro @code{EPERM} expands to @code{EPERM}.  Effectively,
preprocessing leaves it unchanged in the source code.  You can tell
that it's a macro with @code{#ifdef}.  You might do this if you want
to define numeric constants with an @code{enum}, but have
@code{#ifdef} be true for each constant.

If a macro @code{x} expands to use a macro @code{y}, and the expansion of
@code{y} refers to the macro @code{x}, that is an @dfn{indirect
self-reference} of @code{x}.  @code{x} is not expanded in this case
either.  Thus, if we have

@example
#define x (4 + y)
#define y (2 * x)
@end example

@noindent
then @code{x} and @code{y} expand as follows:

@example
@group
x    @expansion{} (4 + y)
     @expansion{} (4 + (2 * x))

y    @expansion{} (2 * x)
     @expansion{} (2 * (4 + y))
@end group
@end example

@noindent
Each macro is expanded when it appears in the definition of the other
macro, but not when it indirectly appears in its own definition.

@node Argument Prescan
@subsubsection Argument Prescan
@cindex expansion of arguments
@cindex macro argument expansion
@cindex prescan of macro arguments

Macro arguments are completely macro-expanded before they are
substituted into a macro body, unless they are stringified or pasted
with other tokens.  After substitution, the entire macro body, including
the substituted arguments, is scanned again for macros to be expanded.
The result is that the arguments are scanned @emph{twice} to expand
macro calls in them.

Most of the time, this has no effect.  If the argument contained any
macro calls, they were expanded during the first scan.  The result
therefore contains no macro calls, so the second scan does not change
it.  If the argument were substituted as given, with no prescan, the
single remaining scan would find the same macro calls and produce the
same results.

You might expect the double scan to change the results when a
self-referential macro is used in an argument of another macro
(@pxref{Self-Referential Macros}): the self-referential macro would be
expanded once in the first scan, and a second time in the second scan.
However, this is not what happens.  The self-references that do not
expand in the first scan are marked so that they will not expand in the
second scan either.

You might wonder, ``Why mention the prescan, if it makes no difference?
And why not skip it and make preprocessing go faster?''  The answer is
that the prescan does make a difference in three special cases:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Nested calls to a macro.

We say that @dfn{nested} calls to a macro occur when a macro's argument
contains a call to that very macro.  For example, if @code{f} is a macro
that expects one argument, @code{f (f (1))} is a nested pair of calls to
@code{f}.  The desired expansion is made by expanding @code{f (1)} and
substituting that into the definition of @code{f}.  The prescan causes
the expected result to happen.  Without the prescan, @code{f (1)} itself
would be substituted as an argument, and the inner use of @code{f} would
appear during the main scan as an indirect self-reference and would not
be expanded.

@item
Macros that call other macros that stringify or concatenate.

If an argument is stringified or concatenated, the prescan does not
occur.  If you @emph{want} to expand a macro, then stringify or
concatenate its expansion, you can do that by causing one macro to call
another macro that does the stringification or concatenation.  For
instance, if you have

@example
#define AFTERX(x) X_ ## x
#define XAFTERX(x) AFTERX(x)
#define TABLESIZE 1024
#define BUFSIZE TABLESIZE
@end example

@noindent
then @code{AFTERX(BUFSIZE)} expands to @code{X_BUFSIZE}, and
@code{XAFTERX(BUFSIZE)} expands to @code{X_1024}.  (Not to
@code{X_TABLESIZE}.  Prescan always does a complete expansion.)

@item
Macros used in arguments, whose expansions contain unshielded commas.

This can cause a macro expanded on the second scan to be called with the
wrong number of arguments.  Here is an example:

@example
#define foo  a,b
#define bar(x) lose(x)
#define lose(x) (1 + (x))
@end example

We would like @code{bar(foo)} to turn into @code{(1 + (foo))}, which
would then turn into @code{(1 + (a,b))}.  Instead, @code{bar(foo)}
expands into @code{lose(a,b)}, which gives an error because @code{lose}
requires a single argument.  In this case, the problem is easily solved
by the same parentheses that ought to be used to prevent misnesting of
arithmetic operations:

@example
#define foo (a,b)
@exdent or
#define bar(x) lose((x))
@end example

The extra pair of parentheses prevents the comma in @code{foo}'s
definition from being interpreted as an argument separator.
@end itemize

@ignore
@c This is commented out because pragmas are not supposed
@c to alter the meaning of the program.
@c Microsoft did something stupid in defining these.

@node Macro Pragmas
@subsection Macro Pragmas

A pragma is a way of specifying special directions to the C compiler.
@xref{Pragmas}, for the basic syntax of pragmas.  Here we describe two
pragmas that save the current definition of a macro on a stack, and
restore it later.  This makes it possible to redefine a macro temporarily
and later go back to the previous definition.

@table @code
@item #pragma push_macro (@var{macro_name})
@itemx _Pragma ("push_macro (@var{macro_name})")
The @samp{push_macro} pragma saves the current macro definition of
@var{macro_name} on the macro definition stack.

@item #pragma pop_macro (@var{macro_name})
@itemx _Pragma ("pop_macro (@var{macro_name})")
The @samp{pop_macro} pragma pops a saved macro definition
off the macro definition stack and defines @var{macro_name} with
that definition.
@end table

Each macro name has a separate stack, and @samp{pop_macro}
when the stack is empty has no effect.

Here's an example of using these to pragmas to override temporarily
the definition of @code{FOO}.

@example
#define FOO 42

/* @r{Do something with @var{FOO} defined as 42...} */

_Pragma ("push_macro (\"FOO\")")
#undef FOO
#define FOO 47

/* @r{Do something with @var{FOO} defined as 47...} */

_Pragma ("pop_macro (\"FOO\")")

/* @r{@var{FOO} is now restored}
   @r{to its previous definition of 42.}  */
@end example
@end ignore

@node Conditionals
@section Conditionals
@cindex conditionals

A @dfn{conditional} is a preprocessing directive that controls whether
or not to include a chunk of code in the final token stream that is
compiled.  Preprocessing conditionals can test arithmetic expressions,
or whether a name is defined as a macro, or both together using the
special @code{defined} operator.

A preprocessing conditional in C resembles in some ways an @code{if}
statement in C, but it is important to understand the difference between
them.  The condition in an @code{if} statement is tested during the
execution of your program.  Its purpose is to allow your program to
behave differently from run to run, depending on the data it is
operating on.  The condition in a preprocessing conditional directive is
tested when your program is compiled.  Its purpose is to allow different
code to be included in the program depending on the situation at the
time of compilation.

Sometimes this distinction makes no practical difference.  GCC and
other modern compilers often
do test @code{if} statements when a program is compiled, if their
conditions are known not to vary at run time, and eliminate code that
can never be executed.  If you can count on your compiler to do this,
you may find that your program is more readable if you use @code{if}
statements with constant conditions (perhaps determined by macros).  Of
course, you can only use this to exclude code, not type definitions or
other preprocessing directives, and you can only do it if the file
remains syntactically valid when that code is not used.

@menu
* Conditional Uses::
* Conditional Syntax::
* Deleted Code::
@end menu

@node Conditional Uses
@subsection Uses of Conditional Directives

There are three usual reasons to use a preprocessing conditional.

@itemize @bullet
@item
A program may need to use different code depending on the machine or
operating system it is to run on.  In some cases the code for one
operating system may be erroneous on another operating system; for
example, it might refer to data types or constants that do not exist on
the other system.  When this happens, it is not enough to avoid
executing the invalid code.  Its mere presence will cause the compiler
to reject the program.  With a preprocessing conditional, the offending
code can be effectively excised from the program when it is not valid.

@item
You may want to be able to compile the same source file into two
different programs.  One version might make frequent time-consuming
consistency checks on its intermediate data, or print the values of
those data for debugging, and the other not.

@item
A conditional whose condition is always false is one way to exclude code
from the program but keep it as a sort of comment for future reference.
@end itemize

Simple programs that do not need system-specific logic or complex
debugging hooks generally will not need to use preprocessing
conditionals.

@node Conditional Syntax
@subsection Syntax of Preprocessing Conditionals

@findex #if
A preprocessing conditional begins with a @dfn{conditional
directive}: @code{#if}, @code{#ifdef} or @code{#ifndef}.

@menu
* ifdef::
* if::
* defined::
* else::
* elif::
@end menu

@node ifdef
@subsubsection The @code{#ifdef} directive
@findex #ifdef
@findex #endif

The simplest sort of conditional is

@example
@group
#ifdef @var{MACRO}

@var{controlled text}

#endif /* @var{MACRO} */
@end group
@end example

@cindex conditional group
This block is called a @dfn{conditional group}.  The body,
@var{controlled text}, will be included in compilation if
and only if @var{MACRO} is defined.  We say that the conditional
@dfn{succeeds} if @var{MACRO} is defined, @dfn{fails} if it is not.

The @var{controlled text} inside a conditional can include
preprocessing directives.  They are executed only if the conditional
succeeds.  You can nest conditional groups inside other conditional
groups, but they must be completely nested.  In other words,
@code{#endif} always matches the nearest @code{#ifdef} (or
@code{#ifndef}, or @code{#if}).  Also, you cannot start a conditional
group in one file and end it in another.

Even if a conditional fails, the @var{controlled text} inside it is
still run through initial transformations and tokenization.  Therefore,
it must all be lexically valid C@.  Normally the only way this matters is
that all comments and string literals inside a failing conditional group
must still be properly ended.

The comment following the @code{#endif} is not required, but it is a
good practice if there is a lot of @var{controlled text}, because it
helps people match the @code{#endif} to the corresponding @code{#ifdef}.

Older programs sometimes put @var{macro} directly after the
@code{#endif} without enclosing it in a comment.  This is invalid code
according to the C standard, but it only causes a warning in GNU C@.
It never affects which @code{#ifndef} the @code{#endif} matches.

@findex #ifndef
Sometimes you wish to use some code if a macro is @emph{not} defined.
You can do this by writing @code{#ifndef} instead of @code{#ifdef}.
One common use of @code{#ifndef} is to include code only the first
time a header file is included.  @xref{Once-Only Headers}.

Macro definitions can vary between compilations for several reasons.
Here are some samples.

@itemize @bullet
@item
Some macros are predefined on each kind of machine
(@pxref{System-specific Predefined Macros, System-specific Predefined
Macros, System-specific Predefined Macros, gcc, Using the GNU Compiler
Collection}).  This allows you to provide code specially tuned for a
particular machine.

@item
System header files define more macros, associated with the features
they implement.  You can test these macros with conditionals to avoid
using a system feature on a machine where it is not implemented.

@item
Macros can be defined or undefined with the @option{-D} and @option{-U}
command-line options when you compile the program.  You can arrange to
compile the same source file into two different programs by choosing a
macro name to specify which program you want, writing conditionals to
test whether or how this macro is defined, and then controlling the
state of the macro with command-line options, perhaps set in the
file @file{Makefile}.  @xref{Invocation, Invoking GCC, Invoking GCC,
gcc, Using the GNU Compiler Collection}.

@item
Your program might have a special header file (often called
@file{config.h}) that is adjusted when the program is compiled.  It can
define or not define macros depending on the features of the system and
the desired capabilities of the program.  The adjustment can be
automated by a tool such as @command{autoconf}, or done by hand.
@end itemize

@node if
@subsubsection The @code{#if} directive

The @code{#if} directive allows you to test the value of an integer arithmetic
expression, rather than the mere existence of one macro.  Its syntax is

@example
@group
#if @var{expression}

@var{controlled text}

#endif /* @var{expression} */
@end group
@end example

@var{expression} is a C expression of integer type, subject to
stringent restrictions so its value can be computed at compile time.
It may contain

@itemize @bullet
@item
Integer constants.

@item
Character constants, which are interpreted as they would be in normal
code.

@item
Arithmetic operators for addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, bitwise operations, shifts, comparisons, and logical
operations (@code{&&} and @code{||}).  The latter two obey the usual
short-circuiting rules of standard C@.

@item
Macros.  All macros in the expression are expanded before actual
computation of the expression's value begins.

@item
Uses of the @code{defined} operator, which lets you check whether macros
are defined in the middle of an @code{#if}.

@item
Identifiers that are not macros, which are all considered to be the
number zero.  This allows you to write @code{@w{#if MACRO}} instead of
@code{@w{#ifdef MACRO}}, if you know that MACRO, when defined, will
always have a nonzero value.  Function-like macros used without their
function call parentheses are also treated as zero.

In some contexts this shortcut is undesirable.  The @option{-Wundef}
requests warnings for any identifier in an @code{#if} that is not
defined as a macro.
@end itemize

Preprocessing does not know anything about the data types of C.
Therefore, @code{sizeof} operators are not recognized in @code{#if};
@code{sizeof} is simply an identifier, and if it is not a macro, it
stands for zero.  This is likely to make the expression invalid.
Preprocessing does not recognize @code{enum} constants; they too are
simply identifiers, so if they are not macros, they stand for zero.

Preprocessing calculates the value of @var{expression}, and carries
out all calculations in the widest integer type known to the compiler;
on most machines supported by GNU C this is 64 bits.  This is not the
same rule as the compiler uses to calculate the value of a constant
expression, and may give different results in some cases.  If the
value comes out to be nonzero, the @code{#if} succeeds and the
@var{controlled text} is compiled; otherwise it is skipped.

@node defined
@subsubsection The @code{defined} test

@cindex @code{defined}
The special operator @code{defined} is used in @code{#if} and
@code{#elif} expressions to test whether a certain name is defined as a
macro.  @code{defined @var{name}} and @code{defined (@var{name})} are
both expressions whose value is 1 if @var{name} is defined as a macro at
the current point in the program, and 0 otherwise.  Thus,  @code{@w{#if
defined MACRO}} is precisely equivalent to @code{@w{#ifdef MACRO}}.

@code{defined} is useful when you wish to test more than one macro for
existence at once.  For example,

@example
#if defined (__arm__) || defined (__PPC__)
@end example

@noindent
would succeed if either of the names @code{__arm__} or
@code{__PPC__} is defined as a macro---in other words,
when compiling for ARM processors or PowerPC processors.

Conditionals written like this:

@example
#if defined BUFSIZE && BUFSIZE >= 1024
@end example

@noindent
can generally be simplified to just @code{@w{#if BUFSIZE >= 1024}},
since if @code{BUFSIZE} is not defined, it will be interpreted as having
the value zero.

In GCC, you can include @code{defined} as part of another macro definition,
like this:

@example
#define MACRO_DEFINED(X) defined X

#if MACRO_DEFINED(BUFSIZE)
@end example

@noindent
which would expand the @code{#if} expression to:

@example
#if defined BUFSIZE
@end example

@noindent
Generating @code{defined} in this way is a GNU C extension.

@node else
@subsubsection The @code{#else} directive

@findex #else
The @code{#else} directive can be added to a conditional to provide
alternative text to be used if the condition fails.  This is what it
looks like:

@example
@group
#if @var{expression}
@var{text-if-true}
#else /* Not @var{expression} */
@var{text-if-false}
#endif /* Not @var{expression} */
@end group
@end example

@noindent
If @var{expression} is nonzero, the @var{text-if-true} is included and
the @var{text-if-false} is skipped.  If @var{expression} is zero, the
opposite happens.

You can use @code{#else} with @code{#ifdef} and @code{#ifndef}, too.

@node elif
@subsubsection The @code{#elif} directive

@findex #elif
One common case of nested conditionals is used to check for more than two
possible alternatives.  For example, you might have

@example
#if X == 1
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#else /* X != 1 */
#if X == 2
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#else /* X != 2 */
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#endif /* X != 2 */
#endif /* X != 1 */
@end example

Another conditional directive, @code{#elif}, allows this to be
abbreviated as follows:

@example
#if X == 1
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#elif X == 2
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#else /* X != 2 and X != 1*/
/* @r{@dots{}} */
#endif /* X != 2 and X != 1*/
@end example

@code{#elif} stands for ``else if''.  Like @code{#else}, it goes in the
middle of a conditional group and subdivides it; it does not require a
matching @code{#endif} of its own.  Like @code{#if}, the @code{#elif}
directive includes an expression to be tested.  The text following the
@code{#elif} is processed only if the original @code{#if}-condition
failed and the @code{#elif} condition succeeds.

More than one @code{#elif} can go in the same conditional group.  Then
the text after each @code{#elif} is processed only if the @code{#elif}
condition succeeds after the original @code{#if} and all previous
@code{#elif} directives within it have failed.

@code{#else} is allowed after any number of @code{#elif} directives, but
@code{#elif} may not follow @code{#else}.

@node Deleted Code
@subsection Deleted Code
@cindex commenting out code

If you replace or delete a part of the program but want to keep the
old code in the file for future reference, commenting it out is not so
straightforward in C.  Block comments do not nest, so the first
comment inside the old code will end the commenting-out.  The probable
result is a flood of syntax errors.

One way to avoid this problem is to use an always-false conditional
instead.  For instance, put @code{#if 0} before the deleted code and
@code{#endif} after it.  This works even if the code being turned
off contains conditionals, but they must be entire conditionals
(balanced @code{#if} and @code{#endif}).

Some people use @code{#ifdef notdef} instead.  This is risky, because
@code{notdef} might be accidentally defined as a macro, and then the
conditional would succeed.  @code{#if 0} can be counted on to fail.

Do not use @code{#if 0} around text that is not C code.  Use a real
comment, instead.  The interior of @code{#if 0} must consist of complete
tokens; in particular, single-quote characters must balance.  Comments
often contain unbalanced single-quote characters (known in English as
apostrophes).  These confuse @code{#if 0}.  They don't confuse
@samp{/*}.

@node Diagnostics
@section Diagnostics
@cindex diagnostic
@cindex reporting errors
@cindex reporting warnings

@findex #error
The directive @code{#error} reports a fatal error.  The
tokens forming the rest of the line following @code{#error} are used
as the error message.

The usual place to use @code{#error} is inside a conditional that
detects a combination of parameters that you know the program does not
properly support.  For example,

@smallexample
#if !defined(UNALIGNED_INT_ASM_OP) && defined(DWARF2_DEBUGGING_INFO)
#error "DWARF2_DEBUGGING_INFO requires UNALIGNED_INT_ASM_OP."
#endif
@end smallexample

@findex #warning
The directive @code{#warning} is like @code{#error}, but it reports a
warning instead of an error.  The tokens following @code{#warning} are
used as the warning message.

You might use @code{#warning} in obsolete header files, with a message
saying which header file to use instead.

Neither @code{#error} nor @code{#warning} macro-expands its argument.
Internal whitespace sequences are each replaced with a single space.
The line must consist of complete tokens.  It is wisest to make the
argument of these directives be a single string constant; this avoids
problems with apostrophes and the like.

@node Line Control
@section Line Control
@cindex line control

Due to C's widespread availability and low-level nature, it is often
used as the target language for translation of other languages, or for
the output of lexical analyzers and parsers (e.g., lex/flex and
yacc/bison).  Line control enables the user to track diagnostics back
to the location in the original language.

The C compiler knows the location in the source file where each token
came from: file name, starting line and column, and final line and column.
(Column numbers are used only for error messages.)

When a program generates C source code, as the Bison parser generator
does, often it copies some of that C code from another file.  For
instance parts of the output from Bison are generated from scratch or
come from a standard parser file, but Bison copies the rest from
Bison's input file.  Errors in that code, at compile time or run time,
should refer to that file, which is the real source code.  To make that happen,
Bison generates line-control directives that the C compiler understands.

@findex #line
@code{#line} is a directive that specifies the original line number
and source file name for subsequent code.  @code{#line} has three
variants:

@table @code
@item #line @var{linenum}
@var{linenum} is a non-negative decimal integer constant.  It specifies
the line number that should be reported for the following line of
input.  Subsequent lines are counted from @var{linenum}.

@item #line @var{linenum} @var{filename}
@var{linenum} is the same as for the first form, and has the same
effect.  In addition, @var{filename} is a string constant that
specifies the source file name.  Subsequent source lines are recorded
as coming from that file, until something else happens to change that.
@var{filename} is interpreted according to the normal rules for a
string constant.  Backslash escapes are interpreted, in contrast to
@code{#include}.

@item #line @var{anything else}
@var{anything else} is checked for macro calls, which are expanded.
The result should match one of the above two forms.
@end table

@code{#line} directives alter the results of the @code{__FILE__} and
@code{__LINE__} symbols from that point on.  @xref{Predefined Macros}.

@node Null Directive
@section Null Directive

@cindex null directive
The @dfn{null directive} consists of a @code{#} followed by a newline,
with only whitespace and comments in between.  It has no
effect on the output of the compiler.